L'après-Amandine: faut-il changer la morale ? (1982)
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Générique principal
Contenus
Thèmes médicaux
Sujet
Questioning in vitro fertilisation (IVF) following the first birth using this technique in France
Genre dominant
Résumé
On 24 February 1982, Amandine, the first French baby conceived with the help of in vitro fertilization (IVF), was born in Clamart (Hauts-de-Seine). Her birth raises questions not only relating to science and its limits but also ethics associated with this type of medical intervention. This TV programme informs viewers about this scientific breakthrough and makes them reflect on its implications.
Contexte
Historical Context of IVF:
The first studies conducted on IVF began as early as 1934 when American researcher Gregory Pincus published the results from his experiments on rabbits. The research did not receive a warm welcome due in large part to the publication of the book Brave New World by British writer Aldous Huxley in 1932. This novel tells the story of test-tube babies born with neither humanity nor spirit. However, other scientists were interested in his results, notably Miriam Menkin who made several attempts, one of which brought success in 1944. She did not, however, attempt to implant an embryo into the uterus.
A prominent figure in this scientific breakthrough was British physiologist Robert Edwards. After 20 years of study and experimentation on fertilisation and embryonic transfer (in animals and humans), he brought about the birth of Louise Brown in 1978, the first viable birth of a child via IVF in the world. This birth was highly broadcasted, bringing new hope to women suffering from tubal infertility, the only motive for making use of the technology at that point in time. Needless to say, there was some reluctance, from both scientific and religious viewpoints. Robert Edwards received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2010 for his pioneering work on IVF.
Contrary to previous efforts in IVF where the chances of success were very low following the removal of a single oocyte, scientists began stimulating ovulation in 1981 to increase the chances of fertilisation. By stimulating ovulation, it is possible to obtain several oocytes instead of only one and, as a result, to multiply the chances of successful fertilisation and implantation of the embryo into the uterus.
IVF in France:
French scientists certainly did not start from zero in IVF research. Professor René Frydman, for example, was able to meet Robert Edwards. He also completed an internship in Australia where the same type of research was being conducted in the early 80s. Several teams were working on performing IVF, notably a team made up of Dr Jacques Testart and Prof. René Frydman and a team led by Dr Jean Cohen. Even though it was not really a competition, each team clearly wanted to be the first to successfully perform IVF. The second team could not manage to achieve fertilisation, whereas the first team was not able to bring about pregnancy following fertilisation. The two teams therefore decided to enter into a partnership in order to help one another and finally obtain the along-awaited result: the birth of Amandine.
Amandine, First French Test-Tube Baby:
The first test-tube baby in France is named Amandine and was born on 24 February 1982 at Antoine Béclère de Clamart Hospital thanks to the IVF technique carried out by Dr Jacques Testart and Prof. René Frydman’s team (both present on the show).
It was of course an enormous event that was highly covered by the media. Aware of the major media attention that surrounded the birth of Louise Brown, Amandine’s parents tried to the best of their ability to remain anonymous and protect their privacy. The delivery had to take place in the utmost secrecy. Prof. René Frydman explained that they had to use several tricks. For example, they scheduled a false caesarean for a mysterious patient after discovering photographers in the hospital disguised as nurses and in the building opposite the hospital.
The State of Mind at the Time:
Just like in England, there was a certain reluctance to accept this new method. The state of mind was mixed with many people opposed to the new technology. Even in the scientific world, a lot of people thought that more research had to be done on animals before putting it into practice. In the general public, French people did not necessarily know that scientists were working on IVF in France but had heard about the birth of Louise Brown in England. The idea that an embryo could be touched or manipulated sparked violent reactions and a sort of shock even among the medical community. Nevertheless, this scientific breakthrough remained a beacon of hope for solving a major problem that was destroying couples yearning to have a child.
Éléments structurants du film
- Images de reportage : Oui.
- Images en plateau : Oui.
- Images d'archives : Oui.
- Séquences d'animation : Non.
- Cartons : Oui.
- Animateur : Oui.
- Voix off : Oui.
- Interview : Oui.
- Musique et bruitages : Oui.
- Images communes avec d'autres films : Oui. « Les premiers jours de la vie » : Extraits de « Planète bleue » [du 3 février 1982]
Comment le film dirige-t-il le regard du spectateur ?
The film begins with opening credits accompanied by serious, suspenseful music characterised by the drum roll of various percussion instruments, which sets the tone for the fshow. The music fades as the opening credits transition to an excerpt from a documentary explaining how natural fertilisation takes place.
It seems to be implied from the get-go that IVF is a method that goes too far given the many questions that call out to the viewer: what right do we have to manipulate human cells, to intervene in the natural process and to tamper with human life? And, to whom do we give this right? Morality and ethics are often discussed.
On set, two hosts are seated centre stage and joined by five guests seated side-on to the camera in two rows facing one another: three doctors to the right of the hosts and a priest and a legal expert to the left. Three large photos of Amandine make up the background of the set. The lead host quickly points out one of them at the beginning of the show. All photos appear to have been taken at the hospital, perhaps by doctors and scientists who observed her after the delivery. The new-born baby is not captured in the arms of her parents but alone in a hospital baby cot, which reinforces the scientific, as opposed to human, nature of the topic up for discussion.
In respect to the guests, the camera presents each one using a close-up which highlights their individuality, their contribution to the discussion and their overall importance on the show. The fact that a priest is invited to debate the ethics of the method illustrates that the secular country, despite everything, still has close ties to religion. However, it is important to note that this priest (Father Xavier Thévenot) was not randomly selected: he is a moral theologian (professor of moral theology at the Catholic University of Paris with 20 years of experience) and also has a scientific background (an undergraduate degree in science from the University of Caen). Lastly, appearing on TV sets is not entirely new to him as he participated in an episode of Dossiers de l'écran dedicated to homosexuality in 1975.
IVF is not truly depicted and celebrated as an extraordinary scientific breakthrough for three reasons: France had a late start performing it compared to other countries, IVF does not guarantee success and it sparks concern over humans interfering with nature. From this point forward, all scientific deviations that could result from the method are mentioned. The show, striving to be innovative, current and a point of reference on the topic for the French population, notably takes on the task of asking questions that are essential to avoiding such deviations.
Comment la santé et la médecine sont-elles présentées ?
In this TV programme, medicine is popularised so that the health topic can be understood by all viewers. Medical procedures are researched and explained in detail using documents and media coverage throughout the show. Furthermore, the presence of guest doctors on the show adds credibility in the eyes of viewers who are able to understand scientific medical jargon and can therefore have access to current medical knowledge from the comfort of their living rooms. As a result, medicine and health are presented as being not only accessible to all but also important, something that must be shared with the general public, regardless of social standing. More precisely, medicine is depicted as a domain which must confront limits, especially with respect to morality and ethics. It must be determined whether the method goes too far and defies nature. This effectively demonstrates that IVF is highly controversial at this time, as outlined in the section “Context”. Despite the show’s efforts to appear current and reflective, the terms that are used to discuss IVF, such as “bien fragile” (quite fragile), “pas auto maîtrisée” (not fully mastered) and “une atteinte au corps humain” (a violation of the human body), nevertheless express a somewhat negative view of the medical breakthrough.
On several occasions throughout the show, the doctors call for reflection, ask for guidance or safeguards, request the opinions of ethics committees and express a certain distress when facing the immense field of possibilities that are opening before them with the development of new technologies such as IVF.
Diffusion et réception
Où le film est-il projeté ?
This TV programme was broadcasted on 3 April 1982 on the channel Antenne 2.
Communications et événements associés au film
The event associated with this TV programme is the birth of Amandine, the first French baby conceived using in vitro fertilisation.
Public
This TV programmes targets the average French audience. Viewers do not need to have specific scientific knowledge in order to watch and understand the programme. The content is popularised to reach a greater number of viewers.
Audience
Descriptif libre
Introduction:
The TV programme begins with a short documentary (from 0:23 to 1:40) which introduces the subject. This serves as a reminder of how an embryo is naturally conceived, including its cell division and formation. The clip also presents the issues that will structure the show as well as the live debate: At which stage can we speak of a human being? What is the difference between a human and a human mammal? What right do we have to interfere with the natural process, to modify nature, correct it or improve it?
The hosts and leaders of the debate are Paul Lefevre and Martine Allain Regnault. They recall the issues raised in the opening clip by questioning the limits of science and the values related to it. The host places a strong emphasis on the terms “right”, “morality” and “ethics”. Next, he presents the guests on the show:
-Prof. René Frydman, senior lecturer, obstetrician.
-Dr Jacques Testart, doctor, biologist, head of fertilisation via test tube in Clamart.
-Prof. Jean Rosa, doctor, president of the Scientific Advisory Board of the French National Institute for Health and Medical Research (INSERM), specialist in research on foetal blood. He is especially concerned about scientists’ liability and issues surrounding ethics committees. He wants to see organisations define the right to test and the right to experiment.
-Catherine Labrusse, law professor at the University Paris-Sud, author of research on the law of parentage and scientific progress.
-Father Xavier Thévenot, priest and professor of moral theology. He wishes to help define convictions but also questions and doubts of this morality in the face of scientific progress.
Everyone’s face is either serious or without expression.
Paul Lefevre then introduces a second clip (from 4:13 to 11:34) which is media coverage showing the complex manipulations involved in external fertilisation. The camera films every person on the show in a single shot then gradually zooms in on the hosts, taking a close-up of them before launching the clip. Paul Lefèvre puts a great deal of emphasis on the expression “man’s attempts to control nature”, which largely guides his remarks and opinion on the subject. However, in the clip, it is specified that this technique is only used in one particular case of infertility: tubal infertility, i.e. in the case of hydrosalpinx (obstruction of the extremity of the fallopian tube which fills with serous fluid) or in the case of adhesions (scar tissue forms a barrier between the ovary and the fallopian tube). The fact that the procedure is reserved for a single, specific case appears to be a way of validating this scientific breakthrough. Throughout the clip, conflicting ideas about IVF are shared just like in the TV programme: the “ability of doctors” is commended while highlighting that fact that it is against nature. (04’13)
Description of the Second Clip:
-The laboratory: IVF is carried out in a laboratory by recreating the different steps involved in natural fertilisation. In the clip, viewers notice that there are numerous people involved in the procedure as it is performed by a multidisciplinary team (gynaecologists, biologists, nurses, secretaries, psychologists, etc.).
-The collection of eggs: This critical step is carefully prepared and must take place when the odds of collecting a maximum number of eggs are highest. The production of eggs is stimulated by hormone treatment. Each egg is a chance to successfully produce an embryo. The procedure takes place in an operating theatre under general or local anaesthesia. The eggs are located using a probe and carefully sucked into a warm syringe. This sequence is essentially made up of close-ups and chest shots of Dr Testart and his assistant. Even though it is the surgical intervention that is shown, the tight frame especially highlights the role of these scientific “pioneers”.
-The preparation: Once the collection of gametes is complete (eggs and sperm), they are observed under a microscope to ensure that they are viable. Biologists reproduce the same conditions found in the body of a woman by adjusting the temperature to 37°C (99°F) and providing a good nutrient medium which conserves the egg for several hours leading up to the fertilisation stage. The sperm undergo a series of treatment in order to concentrate them. They are then re-examined and counted. Between 200,000 and 500,000 active sperm are required for successful fertilisation. In this sequence, face shots of the biologist are very rare. They are replaced with shots of his hands at work and especially of the instruments he uses along with the steps he carries out.
-The encounter: Biologists place the male and female gametes in a test tube in order to try and bring about fertilisation. Sometimes, another technique involves directly introducing a sperm into an egg using a micropipette, but this is not the method presented in the clip. The test tube is then placed for several days in a dark incubator with a temperature of 37°C, reproducing the conditions found in a uterus. This step is referred to as the “ultimate moment”.
-Embryo transfer: the clip shows cell division taking place with soft, subtle music in the background. Once cell division has resulted in 8 cells, the fertilised egg is transferred into the woman’s body. Biologists observe the embryo for one last time before placing it into a catheter which is then placed in a syringe and conserved in a thermos. The action of transferring the embryo is not shown in the clip. (11’34)
After broadcasting a clip, it is then possible to explore the reactions of the guests on the show and to open the debate. The structure of the show does not change: broadcast of a clip followed by the reactions of the guests on the show.
Following the second clip, it is Prof. René Frydman who is the first to speak about what has just been shown. As a gynaecologist, he stresses that the IVF technique is not yet completely mastered and that the research work has only really just begun. There is still much more that needs to be done, notably in order to understand the reasons behind its failures and successes. It is a delicate process which is not yet totally mastered.
The host then looks to hear opinions on the ethical aspects of such a procedure. Catherine Labrusse believes that there is a violation of bodily integrity which must be justified. Consent on the part of the mother and the father are not the only parameters to take into consideration with respect to IVF, otherwise everyone could choose how they would like to procreate. It is important to be able to justify this procedure, especially in cases involving an illness or a condition. That being said, is infertility a condition which must be treated? Is it necessary to find a solution to it (for therapeutic purposes)?
Father Xavier Thévenot begins by first underlining the fact that the Catholic hierarchy has not taken a clear position on the matter at this point in time and that he is therefore speaking on his own behalf. He points out a certain contradiction in this day and age: while some people are looking to have an abortion, others are defying nature via medical procedures in order to be able to procreate. In his opinion, this contradiction raises questions regarding the reception of children in today’s society. It is also important to reflect on the practices and on their current use in today’s society where he finds there is a tendency to overvalue fertility. Even if the intention is praiseworthy, does everyone have the absolute right to have children and to use whatever means necessary to do so? He does not believe that this is right from an ethical point of view. While he speaks, a few quick interspersed shots show Dr Testart with a somewhat wry smile, Prof. Frydman looking down towards the floor and Prof. Rosa taking notes (18’07)
The third clip (from 18:25 to 19:25) addresses the freezing and conservation of “embryos”, that is to say a fertilised eggs with four to eight cells conceived in a test tube in the case of this clip. According to an experiment conducted on more than 3,000 calves, embryos consisting of 4 to 8 cells conceived in test tubes can be conserved at -196°C (-321°F) in order to be implanted at a later time without influencing the cells. This method makes it possible to have additional chances of conceiving another child when a couple so desires. However, the tone of the voice-over conveys some scepticism. The voice-over notably uses the expression “leads one to believe that” when explaining that the method of conservation does not damage the cells. As a result, it is not an affirmation even though the experiments and studies carried out seek to demonstrate that it is possible and proven. Moreover, soft music begins to play when the voice-over explains that by freezing embryos they can be implanted at a later date for a new chance to conceive. However, the music only lasts the duration of the sentence as if to add emphasis to the remark and make the viewer reflect on whether or not it is a good idea to use this method. In this sequence, it is also interesting to note the absence of human beings (only a hand is seen) and the technical frigidity given off by the laboratory setting.(19’25)
Reactions of Guests to the Third Clip:
For Dr Jacques Testart, it is important to try and determine who owns these cells from a moral standpoint (the biological parents or society?) because hormone treatments make it possible to obtain more eggs and thus to collect more. What can or cannot be done with remaining eggs must therefore be decided. He stresses the fact that the answer to this question cannot come from doctors and that it requires much broader consultation (his wording remains a bit vague). When he first took the floor, he incidentally pointed out that this is why he and his colleagues are here this evening, which gives this TV programme the role of initiating debate and/or reflection.
For Prof. Jean Rosa, there is no absolute certainty that freezing embryos has no effect on the cells. Scientists do not have enough hindsight to make this affirmation. Furthermore, animals are not identical to humans, which leaves room for doubt. With respect to the ethical and moral question, he highlights that the “social responsibility of scientists” is one of the topics of reflection discussed at the national symposium on research and technology. Close-up of the proceedings from this symposium that he brought with him on the show. He insists on defining the word “ethics” (“rules of behaviour established in order to be correct in relation to the problem being studied”), while pointing out that he is not a philosopher.
Father Xavier Thévenot naturally carries on the discussion. He defines ethics as a reflection on the best ways to humanise society and to identify what makes it possible to live best in society, together, with joie de vivre.
Dr Testart returns to the risks and dangers of freezing embryos. In his opinion, the composition of cells is not impacted by this method of conservation. Nevertheless, the problem lies more in the freedom to freeze a living embryo that could just as well be born a few years or even centuries later. It is, however, possible that an embryo does not survive freezing. Moreover, it is certain that cells that have undergone this procedure are not modified. He then raises the issue of embryos potentially gaining market value and becoming an object of trade.
Catherine Labrusse focuses more on the legal status of the embryo, which is difficult to determine. As an embryo is not a “thing”, it is not property and does not belong to its parents. In law, the body constitutes the person. Consequently, legal answers to the question are somewhat ambiguous. An embryo has a legal personality (for example, it can inherit) but only if it is born alive and viable. However, the law of 17 January 1975 (since repealed, see supplementary notes) grants an embryo the right to integrity, from the very beginning of life.
This reflection on defining the status of an embryo sparks reactions from other guests. Prof. Jean Rosa considers the definition to be unclear, even in the scientific domain. His adopts a somewhat mocking tone and prevents C. Labrusse from retaking the floor. He affirms that defining an embryo is not up to legal experts even though he would like for them to be a part of ethics committees. His exclamatory tone makes a few people present on the show chuckle. It is often thought that there is an embryo as early as the 8th week following fertilisation because it begins to take the form of a small human. Prof. Frydman specifies that, in the context of this research, it is rather a matter of cellular embryos. They represent potential for human life but are currently at the cellular stage. Dr Testart specifies that, at this point in time, they are still independent from their mother since there still has not been any contact with the uterus. It is therefore not yet an embryo in the strict sense of the term.
The fourth clip (33:48 to 35:01) was borrowed from the TV programme Planète Bleue by Laurent Broomhead. The clip is shot under a microscope with high magnification. A microneedle is enough to cut a fertilised bovine egg into two viable, identical halves in only two minutes. This procedure would make it possible to give birth to twins. The voice-over explains that this experiment was broadcasted live on television from INRA (National Institute for Agricultural Research) in the Jouy-en-Josas Centre (Île de France) on 3 February 1982 (the same year at the current show). The experiment was conducted by biologist Jean-Pierre Ozil. This has never been tested on a fertilised human egg. (35’01)
Reactions of Guests to the Fourth Clip:
From an ethical viewpoint, Jacques Testart is less concerned with the idea of splitting a fertilised egg in two than freezing it to be used at a later date. Splitting an egg in two could bring forth two major advantages to IVF. First, it could increase the chances of infertile women conceiving a child. Moreover, since women can naturally have twins while a cow cannot, the experiment should technically function better on women. The second advantage is that scientists could study the second half of the embryo to see whether or not it is viable since the two halves would be identical. In fact, it is not really IVF that has yet to be mastered because it succeeds in nearly 80% of cases. What poses problems is transferring the fertilised egg into the woman’s uterus. The ability to study the second half could perhaps help in understanding what is not going to plan.
Prof. Jean Rosa reflects on the ethics and the right to touch what he calls a “pre-embryo”. He underlines how France is lagging behind the Americans who have been asking themselves these questions and organizing ethics committees for ten or so years already.
For Father Xavier Thévenot, successfully defining the status of that eight-cell being that can become a human is of prime importance. He wonders about the limit that should not be crossed. That fertilised egg has special characteristics and the potential to grow into a human being (it is not a basic animal or a plant cell). It is therefore important to reflect on the respect that we wish to give to these cells. With this being said, if we conduct experiments on this kind of embryonic cells, who says we won’t go further and further, into later and later stages involving, for example, embryos that are already formed. He nonetheless recognises the theoretical advantages that this could bring about, especially in respect to monitoring and preventing malformations. But he also regrets the poor position that people with malformations have in society. They are poorly received since abortion is most often the response when faced with this reality. As he mentions amniocentesis which makes it possible to diagnose a certain number of anomalies, Paul Lefevre asks Martine Allain Regnault to define this term who then calls on Prof. Frydman. Down syndrome is evoked via the term “Mongolian” and abortion, which Father Thévenot heard on TV was becoming systematic. Exclamation made by Paul Lefevre: “TV is not always the source of wisdom!”
Catherine Labrusse denounces the legal void in the domain of IVF due to the very recent nature of the scientific breakthrough. However, care must be taken to ensure that market value is not attributed to an embryo, which would create a financial market. In her opinion, it is essential and necessary that centres, which are registered and monitored by the state (the Ministry of Health), be created in order to avoid egg and embryo banks as well as trade in these biological "goods" from taking root.
Dr Testart specifies that doctors currently have the technical capacity to carry out certain acts but that they refrain from doing so.
Jean Rosa speaks of the creation of an experimental ethics committee at the university hospital in Créteil. According to him, the committee must be made up of competent individuals in the field of science but not just science. Scientific specialists do not possess universal knowledge, the general public can understand and give their opinion on these types of experiments, for example, which also appears to be the message conveyed in this TV programme. Nevertheless, it is important to be aware that IVF is a recent procedure, which is why it is difficult to give a clear-cut opinion on its therapeutic aim, for example. It is therefore necessary to open the debate to not only the scientific community but also society as a whole and to take a critical step back from the human experiment. The number of births from this method is certainly negligible at this point in time, but that is not a reason to not define anything and allow the practice and surrounding activities to remain in a grey area. On the contrary, it is the ideal time to define and delineate the path down which scientists are headed. It is crucial that everyone understand the issue at hand before making a decision. However, no one on the show goes so far as to specify the practical steps to public consultation. Prof. Frydman underlines that thanks to the media and especially television, there has been a certain “buzz” with respect to questions relating to reproduction for some time now. He adds that for the moment, despite the request of scientists, the ethical framework is virtually inexistent.
Father Thévenot expresses his concern regarding the possibility of using a referendum to consult a population on ethical topics, especially a population that is living in a society which is not very humane “at this time”. Is this in reference to current events (the rise to power of socialists with the election of François Mitterrand as president of the French Republic on 10 May 1981)? He comes back to the establishment of ethical committees composed of not only leading scientists but also “wise people”. During his participation in the show, he frequently uses the terms “humanising” and “dehumanising” which could be considered a trademark of his work and publications.
Catherine Labrusse supports the idea of creating ethics committees to avoid running the risk of leaving doctors alone to face their fears and uncertainty, even though a technique like IVF only concerns a mere fraction of the population. Furthermore, these committees would establish ethical rules that would have the advantage of being easier to adapt and modify than law.
For Dr Testart, there are all sorts of possibilities to explore between ethical committees and a referendum.
Prof. Jean Rosa insists on the media’s role to educate and inform as well as on the necessity to effectively teach biology throughout secondary schooling so that the public can understand and give their opinion.
Martine Allain Regnault asks about fundamental research experiments that could be carried out on embryos. It is the role of ethical committees to decide on these issues, along with those raised in the case of children born to surrogate mothers (the term is not used, but the situation is brought up). In his conclusion, Paul Lefevre expresses the hope, while turning towards Drs Testart and Frydman, that they were able to “get their message across”. He alludes to the fact that it is up to "our generation" to reflect on all these questions, to answer them “and especially, to take responsibility for them”.
During the closing credits, the camera gradually moves from a wide shot of everyone present on the show to one of the photos of Amandine whose face ends up occupying the entire screen. Her face then alternates with a chest shot of each of the five guests on the show.
It is interesting to note that on four occasions in the show, the host or one of the guests mentioned the role of media or the current show as a major player in the debate on IVF (see bolded text in the above description).
Notes complémentaires
Law of 17 January 1975 on the voluntary termination of pregnancy repealed by Order 2000-548 2000-06-15 art. 4 II JORF 22 June 2000. Article 1: “The law guarantees respect for every human being from the beginning of life. This principle may only be infringed when necessary and under the conditions defined by this law”.
Références et documents externes
"De l'INH à l'Inserm. De la santé publique à la recherche médicale", Inserm : https://histoire.inserm.fr/de-l-inh-a-l-inserm/l-inserm-de-1964-a-nos-jours (consultée le 29.03.2021)
"Loi n° 75-17 du 17 janvier 1975 relative à l'interruption volontaire de la grossesse" : https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000700230
Site web sur la Fécondation In Vitro « fait par un couple pour les couples » : https://www.fiv.fr/
Mandelbaum, J., “Histoire de la fécondation in vitro” in Christophe Poncelet et Christophe Sifer, ed., Physiologie, pathologie et thérapie de la reproduction chez l’humain, Paris, Springer-Verlag, 2011, pp 63-71 (URL: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-2-8178-0061-5_5)
Contributeurs
- Auteurs de la fiche : Marie Janot, Élisabeth Fuchs, Sherry Stanbury
- 2 Traducteurs_vers_anglais : Sherry Stanbury